Tasks

Introduction

Jobs can best be understood as a series of tasks. A task is an action designed to contribute a specified end result to the accomplishment of an objective. It has an identifiable beginning and end that is a measurable component of the duties and responsibilities of a specific job.

Although each job has a title, the actually work that is expected of that job can vary widely. Tasks are the means of describing a job in detail. For example, a doctor is a job title. But the tasks performed by each doctor vary - from operating to performing physicals to providing emergency first aid.

An administrative assistant in one organization might only be tasked to take dictation, type letters, and answer the phone, while an administrative assistant in another department might have additional tasks to perform, such as coordinating projects and helping with the budget planning process. A forklift operator in one organization might only be tasked to load and unload trailers, while in another organization a forklift operator might also have the additional tasks of moving product from a storage location, stocking it in a picking location, and then entering the moves into a computer database.

Most problems that deal with doing the job right (performance), are related to the ability to define the tasks that concern each job:

	Workers need to know what they are supposed to do. This increases both autonomy and initiatives by defining the latitude workers have.
	Supervisors need to know what their workers should be doing in order to provide feedback. It must be clear on what is being done and why.
	Managers need to know the Skills, Knowledge, and Attitudes (SKA) they need to interview for. Making the correct hiring decision has extreme impacts throughout the organization.
	Human Resources need to know the SKA so that the pay reference point can be set.
	Trainers need to know the tasks so that they can create the learning objectives in order to improve job performance.
	The organization at a whole needs to know what tasks need to get accomplished so that their goals and mission may be met.

As you can see, lacking an understanding of the work to be done leads to issues with performance, supervision, selection, pay, training, and goal achievement. This in turn leads to poor morale. And if the morale in your organization is not at its peak, then you will not be able to remain competitive.

Task Analysis

A task analysis defines a job in terms of SKA necessary to perform daily tasks. It is a structured framework that dissects a job and arrives at a reliable method of describing it across time and people by composing a detailed listing of all the tasks. The first product of a task analysis is a task statement for each task which is composed of an action and a result (product).

Once the task statement has been defined, the task analysis will then go into further detail by describing the:

	task frequency
	difficulty of learning
	importance to train
	task criticality
	task difficulty
	overall task importance

This in turn provides you with the information for identifying the SKA required for successful task performance. The analysis might also go into further detail by describing the task steps required to perform the task.

There are a wide variety of methods for performing a task analysis, such as observations, interviews, and questionnaires. These methods are discussed in more detail in Chapter 2, Analysis and Analysis methods.

Task Statements

As mentioned earlier, a task statement is composed of an action and a result (product). For example, a couple of task statements for a fireperson might be:

	Determines manual ladder type and size needed at incident scene. ("Determine" is the action while "identifying the correct ladder" is the result or product.)
	Carries manual ladder from apparatus to incident scene. ("Carries" is the action and the "ladder being placed at the scene" is the result of that action.)

Notice that the action can be mental such as "determining" or physical such as "carrying." Some other mental examples would be analyze, calculate, predict, and design. Physical examples might include, paint, dig, move, and pack. Actions can also deal with people such as counsel, mentor, teach, and explain. An example of a fireperson doing a people task would be "Calms distressed individuals at emergency scene." "Calms" would be the action being performed, while "producing a less stressed person" would be the result or product of that action. It often helps to sort the task actions into People, Data, and Things for clarity. This helps to identify the main characteristics of the job.

Good task statements are not easy to write. They require some in-depth analysis of the job by observing and interviewing Subject Matter Experts (SME). When observing, you should have them slow down so that you can identify what they are performing. One way to do this is to have them speak out loud as they perform the task, explaining what they are doing and why as they perform the task. This is a must when documenting mental actions as you have no idea what the SME is thinking.

Also, unlike learning objectives, tasks can have more than one action word. For example, "Troubleshoot and repair a carburetor" might be an acceptable task statement where as the two action words would make it unacceptable for a learning objective.

Task steps (also known as performance steps) are the step-by-step instructions for performing the process. They describe each step in sequence. You should ask, " What does the SME do first, second, third, and so on?" Take nothing for granted as experts may do some things so quickly that they are almost invisible. Often, they will not even be aware of the fact that they are performing something because they have done it so many times it just seems second nature to them.
Many task analysis do NOT require the recording of the task steps. Often, just the tasks will be recorded and the required SKA identified. Then, if any of the tasks requires training, rather it be formal, on-the-job, job aids, etc., then a second analysis will be performed to list the task steps. Although identifying and listing the steps can be a big help in defining a job, the cost of performing such a detailed analysis has to be weighed with other factors. Many processes, departments, and organizations are changing rapidly to stay competitive. If the task steps are not going to be used right away, you will need to determine if they will be valid at a later date.

However, the task steps for a learning program are almost always included, as the correct performance procedure needs to be documented. An example of a task for a Buyer with its steps might look like:
Orders manufacturing parts when the system flags a part as being low in stock.

Look up usage for the item for the previous 12 month period.

Find the average monthly use (total the 12 months of usage and divide by 12).

Add the planned growth rate for the product line.

Check parts catalogs or call the source for best buy rates.

Check with planned usage tables or the business unit to ensure that the part will not go out of specifications for the best calculated buy period.

Place purchase order.

There are four main methods for determining the steps in a task analysis:

Hierarchical Task Analysis - arranging by order of actions

IF and THEN Analysis - If and then relationship

Model Based Analysis - possible actions listed

Cognitive Task Analysis - critical decision based

Hierarchical Task Analysis
Most task analyses follow this method. Steps are arranged in the order they are performed. For example, a production worker might have the following task steps:
Package goods as they come off the production line.

Place good in shrink-wrap.

Run good through heat-shrink.

Place good in package.

Glue ends of package together.

Place label on front of package.

Place on finished line.

It is not always easy to identify what a task step is as experts often group several steps into a larger one. For example, they might list "open the daily receiving spreadsheet file," instead of 1) start computer, 2) open spreadsheet program, 3) etc. If you are going to use the task steps for training purposes, then you are going to have to identify your target population. This will tell you how detailed the steps need to be. For example, if your target population is computer literate, then the expert‘s combined step might be appropriate, otherwise, you might have to break it into several smaller steps. There is no one right way to list steps as each circumstance will differ. This is why the first part of an analysis is crucial - to determine what type of information is needed and who your target population is.
If possible, steps should include the signs of success. This is how experts know when they‘ve done something right. Carpenters look for edges to be aligned while plumbers ensure there are no leaks. When you know this kind of event, you can assure the learners that they are doing things correctly.

If and Then Analysis
Often, the task performer‘s action depends upon a condition being satisfied. For example, think of using the delete function on a word processing program:

IF text is a word THEN:

move cursor to middle of word

double-click mouse button

IF text is a section of words or letters THEN:

move cursor to beginning of text

press mouse button down

move cursor to end of text

release mouse button

Press [Ctrl-C] or click on the cut icon.

An example for a supervisor‘s coaching task steps with certain conditions being met might look like this:
Coach employees to gain greater competence and to improve job performance.

IF the employee is a beginner (cannot perform) THEN:

Give lots of clear instructions (training) because the task is new.

Give just a little bit of support (motivation) to calm the stress of change.

IF the employee has had a little experience (can only perform with some guidance) THEN:

Allow the learner to experiment somewhat so that learning takes place from mistakes being made, but keep the level of guidance high so that these mistakes do not become learned.

Do NOT motivate too much as the employee needs to concentrate on mastering the new task (our brains can only take so many inputs. See Arousal).

IF the employee can perform, but makes occasional mistakes or is slow (capable performer) THEN:

Drop instructional level to just a few pointers so that the learner can experiment with new skill.

Increase the amount of emotional support (motivation) to help increase the level of confidence.

IF the employee performs well (competent or Subject Matter Expert) THEN:

Provide little coaching and support so that the employee can take ownership of job.

Delegate and encourage employee to take on new responsibilities and new assignments.

Start using mentoring on employee to help him or her grow.

Model Based Analysis
This method is often used for professional tasks as the steps for performing certain tasks can be extremely vague to define. Although performance is based on methodologies, there might not be any clear and cut guidelines for performing the task. For example, in going back to the task that has the supervisor coaching an employee, we might have this task and steps:
Uses one or more accelerated learning techniques to promote learning. Acceptable techniques include, but are not limited to:

use examples of others

have them form a picture in their minds of what they are trying to learn

help them gain and understand necessary information

apply the task to their job

present information using visual, auditory, and kinesthetic methods

practice the task

This method relies upon the task performer to determine what task steps are needed and then sequence those steps in order to accomplish the task in an efficient and effective manner.
Cognitive Task Analysis
Due to the rapid changes that are the major workings of many of today‘s organizations, a number of organizations are changing from task-based work to process-based. Jobs are no longer defined by a number of tasks, but by focusing on troubleshooting activities. In these cases, a cognitive task analysis may be more appropriate for identifying strategies involved in effective performance.
A Cognitive Task Analysis is directed at the psychological processes underlying the performance and the subtle cues that may depend on context and experience. The main goal of a cognitive task analysis is to define the actual decision requirements of the task by:

Mapping out the task using task analysis (traditional task analysis).

Identifying the critical decision points.

Clustering and linking the decision points.

Prioritizing the decision points.

Diagnosing and characterizing the decisions as to the strategies used, cues signaling the decision points, and the inferences made regarding cues and decision points.

There is a key differences between a task analysis and cognitive task analysis. Task analysis focuses mainly on observable behavior and does not offer information on overall organization of knowledge. While a cognitive task analysis is directed at the psychological processes underlying the behavior. Cognitive task analysis concentrates on the critical decisions and cognitive processes that separate the expert from the novice.

An example for an instructional designer might be (this example does not go into great detail due to space limitations):
Uses one or more accelerated learning techniques to promote learning.

Map out the task using task analysis (traditional task analysis):

use examples of others

have them form a picture in their minds of what they are trying to learn

help them gain and understand necessary information

apply the task to their job

present information using visual, auditory, and kinesthetic methods

practice the task

Identify the critical decision points (what do experts ask themselves when deciding on what learning technique to use):

What is the experience level of the learners?

What methods are available to present the information in visual, auditory, and kinesthetic (VAK) styles?

Cluster and link the decision points (Note: only the first decision point, "What is the experience level of the learners?" is shown):

Ask learners for their experience level to gain a background.

Ask questions that provide clues.

Observe how they react to new and difficult information.

Prioritize the decision points:

Main decision point is asking for their experience level. Asking questions is then used to ensure that the trainer and the learner both understand each other and know where each other is coming from.

Diagnose and characterize the decisions as to the strategies used, cues signaling the decision points, and the inferences made regarding cues and decision points.

Asking the learners for their experience level builds a level of trust and rapport between them and the trainer. But, to prevent any form of misunderstanding, questioning techniques are used to verify their answers. With experience learners, the trainer can get right to the point. While less experienced learners need the material presented in a variety of formats.

Duties

Duties are a combination of related or like tasks. For example, an inventory control specialist might have two duties:

Perform shipping duties:

	Pull items using a letdown. (task)
	Prepare items for shipment. (task)

Perform receiving duties:

	Unload trailers using a forklift. (task)
	Receive the items into the computer database. (task)

As mentioned earlier, tasks should have a definite beginning and end and explain a process. This is the main clue for separating tasks from duties. For example, is the following a task or duty for a Fireperson?

Stands watch to receive incoming alarms and information, answers phones, and monitors access to the station house.

This would be a duty as it would be extremely hard for someone to identify the process and note when it has started and when it has stopped. Clues that give this off as a duty are the multiple action verbs: stands, receive answer, and monitor. Also, if this was a task, then you would have to see all the actions performed when observing the task, e.g. when an alarm is received then the phone would have to be answered. Remember, a task stands alone as it has a definite start and an end.

The tasks performed while carrying out this duty might include:

	Receives notification of multiple alarms, downtown alarms, and other significant emergencies through the Fire Alarm Office. ("Receives" is the action while "being notified of the various alarms" is the result.)
	Notifies station personnel over public address system of incoming alarms and required response (e.g., everybody goes, truck only, engine only, etc.). ("Notifying" is the action while "the other firepersons being made aware of the required response" is the result.)

Skills, Knowledge, and Attitudes (SKA)

Knowing the tasks that have to be performed helps you to identify the SKA that the jobholder must possess in order to perform to standards. In some cases you will train some of the required SKA. But even then, you must determine the required entry behaviors (SKA required to be able to learn the new tasks). Some prerequisite skills may be difficult to recognize because they are too obscure, others may be too obvious. For example, forklift operators need hand and eye coordination before they can be trained. A shipping and receiving specialist might need keyboarding skills, while a planner needs good math and organization skills. On the other end of the scale, you would expect an accountant to have math skills, receptionists to know that a ringing phone needs to be answered and that someone might not be on the other end of the when they pick up the phone.

To help you extract the SKA from a task, you should be familiar with Bloom‘s Taxonomy or Learning Domains. The three learning domains used in Bloom‘s Taxonomy - cognitive, psychomotor, and affective; correspond to knowledge, skills, and attitude respectively.

For example, the task "Create web pages" has the action word "create. The chart showing the three learning domains has the word create as one of the key words in the cognitive domain under the category of synthesis. This is the next to highest category, so it tells you that it is high on the scale of knowledge skills. Some of the SKA required are "Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure." Using this information, and with the input of SMEs, you might come up with something like:
"Create pages for the e-commerce web site."

task frequency - performed daily as it is main job task.

difficulty of learning - entry behavior requires computer, web, and design skills.

importance to train - low as a qualified person can probably be hired

task criticality - 5 on a scale of 1 to 5

task difficulty - 4 on a scale of 1 to 5

overall task importance - 5 on a scale of 1 to 5

SKA required:

	Program in HTML (HyperText Markup Language).
	Design and build on-screen layout and messages using company templates.
	Uses Microsoft FrontPage or similar remote publishing tool.
	Works with others (teamwork) by interacting with the Merchandising department group.
	Constructs computer pictures using digital cameras.
	Knowledge of scanner software.
	Communicates using both written and verbal skills.

Team Task Analysis

A team task analysis includes teamwork and individual taskwork. Teamwork consists of individuals interacting or coordinating tasks that are important to the team‘s goals, while taskwork consists of individuals performing tasks. Like a job analysis, a team task analysis is important because it forms the foundation for team design, team performance measurement, and team training. The purpose of the team task analysis will dictate if the focus is to be upon team tasks, team processes, individual taskwork, or some combination of the three.

A team can be defined as a group of individuals working together toward a common goal, product, or solution that requires the sharing of expertise, knowledge, and ideas in a cooperative and interdependent fashion. Some of the goals that they might be trying to achieve are:

	solving a problem
	designing a plan
	defining a process
	building a product
	executing a process

Taskworks, or individual tasks, are analyzed using the same methods as discussed earlier. They should, however, be reviewed by the other team-members in order to gauge their full impact. Teamwork, on the other hand, requires a slightly different approach. For example, some of the tasks that might be in teamwork are:

	Participate and share in the team‘s leadership.
	Achieve team roles and norms (focus is on the underlying team mechanics and operating rules).
	Participate by contributing data and knowledge.
	Coordinate task responsibilities.
	Share in the decision making process with the goal of reaching consensus.
	Communicate, provide feedback, and interact among the team members (openness in critiquing and trusting others).
	Accomplish goals (the team‘s ability to meet its milestones and time deadlines).
	Produce a quality product that will be accepted by the customer (either external or internal).
	Work efficiently and effectively as a team unit.

Teamwork becomes more difficult to analyze as it is performed collectively by the team. For example, how do you determine the amount of participation of the individuals in accomplishing a goal? Also, most of the team tasks include soft skills. A hard skill can easily be measured, such as "Paint a door," while a soft skill is more difficult to measure, such as "Share in the decision making process."

Team tasks can best be analyzed by extracting task information from the team as a whole. It is only after getting agreement by the team on the task‘s frequency, criticality, difficulty, importance, and SKA that the complete significance of the teamwork task can be defined. Just as a team is responsible for achieving its goals, it should also have the major responsibility of defining the teamwork (team tasks) that empowers it. Although this requires that you become more of a facilitator than a task analyst, the payoff will be a team that has built and therefore will implement its defining structure.

Task Example Quiz

Listed below are 12 jobs. Below each job are three statements. Next to each statement, write if it a task, duty, or task step.

EXAMPLE - Truck Driver

	Maintain and operate a truck and trailer. duty
	Selects most direct and expeditious route to destination. task
	Obtain weather report before crossing mountain pass. task step

1. Administrative Assistant

	Answers department and outside phone. _____
	Performs office duties as needed. _____
	Check spelling. _____

2. Supervisor

	Recognize the smell of marijuana. _____
	Supervise personal as needed. _____
	Identify a substance abuser. _____

3. Company Driver

	Drives company employees and other personal to various functions as directed by dispatcher. _____
	Checks horn for proper operation. _____
	Performs preventive maintenance checks and services before operating vehicle. _____

4. Power Plant Operator

	Open the water valve to increase water flow. _____
	Adjust the cooling system to prevent overheating. _____
	Monitor power system for faults. _____

5. Manager

	Interviews and hires new employees. _____
	Conducts an interview with a prospective candidate. _____
	Asks a behavioral question. _____

6. Bulldozer Operator

	Builds roads. _____
	Tilt the blade. _____
	Digs a drainage ditch. _____

7. Search and Rescue Team Member

	Searches assigned area in order to locate victims and to obtain further information about incident, following standard search and operating procedures. _____
	Aligns map in correct direction using a compass. _____
	Locates present position using a map and compass. _____

8. Accountant

	Perform SKU substitutions as needed for positive and negative numbers. _____
	Reconcile the production department. _____
	Perform end-of-month closeouts. _____

9. Life Guard

	Monitors swimming pool area for safety. _____
	Checks for breathing by placing ear next to mouth and listening. _____
	Rescues drowning victims using life-saving techniques. _____

10. Painter

	Prepare, paint, and perform cleanup as required. _____
	Prepares room for painting. _____
	Cover all furniture, appliances, merchandise and other property using plastic and canvas covers. _____

11. Barista

	Makes a shot of espresso. _____
	Make drinks. _____
	Measure out one serving of coffee grounds. _____

12. Trainer

	Estimate the cost of overheads. _____
	Create training programs. _____
	Estimate the cost of a training program. _____

Answer Guide